»Issues

Issue 4 (March 2007)

Lessons to be Learnt About Computer Assisted Language Learning

With the rapid change and advancement in information and communication technologies (ICT), we need to redefine, reshape our practices, therefore instrumental use of ICT is not enough, teachers need to develop a reflective approach to using the tools and know more about the pedagogical underpinnings so that they would be able to keep abreast of the changes and improve their practices. We need to draw attention to the importance of integrating technology into subject-specific courses and developing teachers' practices for technological use in the classroom, which plays a significant role in the process. The article discusses issues related to the field of computer assisted language learning (CALL). CALL is approached from different perspectives in the study to show its interdisciplinary nature and to highlight those aspects that need to be taken into consideration when we decide to integrate technology use into a language classroom. A critical analysis of past and present practices related to CALL can be informative for the future. We should not reinvent the wheel from time to time but learn from past experiences and build upon them. We can decide what kind of approach to technology use might be the most effective in a given situation if we are aware of the repertoire of resources, tools, pedagogical practices that we can choose from. The present study intends to help in this process by delineating what CALL is from an interdisciplinary perspective. A historical analysis of CALL

If we want to use CALL to its potentials in the future then it is important to examine past and present practices. We need to be aware of the developments in CALL and analyse them with a critical eye so that we can build on our findings and improve future practices therefore a historical analysis about advances and trends in the field is essential.

Most of the accounts about the history of CALL summarise and review the developments with dates and factual information about software and hardware (Ahmad, Corbett, Rogers, & Sussex, 1985; Kenning, 1990; Levy, 1997; Chapelle, 2001). Warschauer's work (Warschauer, 1996; Warschauer & Healey, 1998; Warschauer, 2000) goes beyond this level and analyses the stages of CALL along features about technology, learning theory, language pedagogy. His approach is more detailed and systematic therefore it can contribute to a better understanding of the underlying principles of past and present CALL use and can inform future practices. Warschauer's categories are used as a reference in current literature and many researchers describe their work along the three phases of Warschauer's model. However, extensions and modifications have been suggested to the framework (Bax, 2003).

This section looks at the changes that have occurred in relation to computers in language learning since the 1960s when computer-assisted language learning came into existence.

A chronological history of CALL

Warschauer's analysis of CALL -as it was mentioned above- serves as a starting point for many researchers and practitioners in the field. The history of computer-assisted language learning will be discussed here along Warschauer's labels. For each phase reference will be given to other related fields that influenced the developments of that particular period in CALL.

If we look at the different publications where Warschauer discusses the three phases of CALL, we can see some differences in terminology and dates as well (Warschauer, 1996; Warschauer & Healey, 1998; Warschauer, 2000). In his early publications the first stage was called 'Behaviourist CALL' (Warschauer, 1996; Warschauer & Healey, 1998) and the 1960s-1970s were given as the time period but later he modified it to 'Structural CALL' (Warschauer, 2000) and dated it to the 1970s-1980s. The other two labels remained the same but the dates were shifted around to about ten years, for 'Communicative CALL' from the 1970s-1980s to the 1980s-1990s and for 'Integrative CALL' from the turn of the century to the 21^st century. Warschauer does not give a straightforward reason for the changes that he introduced in his framework in the updated version but there are more concepts along which the stages are described in the newer publications. Reference is given not only to the learning theory of the era but also views on language and language acquisition are analysed. Warschauer uses the term stages to describe the dominant approach of the time but he does not want to imply that one stage disappears with the emergence of the other, they might be used in combination with previous ones for different purposes.

Each stage in Warschauer's work corresponds to a dominant pedagogical approach and level of technology (see Table 1 for details). The first stage, Structural CALL, was conceived during the 1960s and dominated CALL between the 1970s and 1980s. Behaviourist psychology (e.g. Skinner, 1954) and structural linguistics (e.g. Bloomfield, 1933) influenced CALL development in this phase and the dominant language teaching method of this era was audio-lingualism. We can see that it took decades to incorporate the latest scientific accomplishments into language pedagogy or CALL. The return to earlier pedagogical models in CALL was mainly due to the limitations of technology.

Structures and patterns, and pattern drills can be used to condition learners to produce linguistically correct responses to the stimuli and form students' habit in this way. Four main types of drills can be distinguished: imitation, completion, substitution, and transformation, which are executed technically either in three or four phases. The stimulus is followed by the learner's response and then the leaner is given the right answer or it might be extended with the fourth phase when the learner repeats, and confirms the answer. We should note it as a positive feature that most of the programmes worked at the sentence level and not at the word level.

The earliest CALL programmes were developed for mainframe computers and the computer was used as a tutor for delivering grammar and vocabulary tutorials, drill and practice programmes and language testing. These programmes were used for individualised learning, students could work at their own pace and they were usually given immediate feedback by the computer. The feedback focused on small segments of the language and the aim was to eliminate mistakes as they lead to the formation of bad habits. Accuracy was given primacy over fluency.

In spite of talking about this phase as if it referred to past practices of CALL, we should note that drill and practice programmes are still around and they have a place in language learning especially in practising grammatical structures, vocabulary learning and phonological development (Hubbard & Bradin Siskin, 2004). With the advancement in technology and the availability of multimedia, the earlier drill and practice exercises could be contextualised and multiple modes of representation of vocabulary (text, graphics, audio, and video) became possible. Some of the so called tutorial CALL programmes might be categorised as representatives of the second stage of CALL with more features of the cognitive perspective.

These examples show again that the different phases do not mean distinct categories as they might co-occur and the same application or tool might be used in different ways with different pedagogical considerations in mind, which makes sound methodological preparation for teachers even more important.

Table 1 . Warschauer's three stages of CALL

*Stage*	1970s-1980s: Structural CALL	1980s-1990s: Communicative CALL	21^st Century: Integrative CALL
*Technology*	Mainframe	PCs	Multimedia and Internet
*English-teaching paradigm*	Grammar-translation & audio-lingual	Communicative language teaching	Content-based, ESP/EAP
*View of language*	Structural (a formal structural system)	Cognitive (a mentally-constructed system)	Socio-cognitive (developed in social interaction)
*Principal use of computers*	Drill and practice	Communicative exercises	Authentic discourse
*Principal objective*	Accuracy	and fluency	and agency

(Warschauer, 2000)

The introduction of the microcomputer in the 1980s created the technological background for bringing about changes in the nature of CALL activities. Cognitive and communicative approaches to language learning also influenced CALL research and practice in this era.

The term Communicative CALL might be misleading since it does not cover the same concepts as language teaching methodologists would consider defining as communicative language teaching. Warschauer in his framework covers cognitive/mentalist and communicative approaches to language learning under the same label. Another problem with the model is that the communicative approach to language teaching was not implemented in CALL practice in a significant way in the 1980s. CALL programmes and activity types in this period lend themselves more to cognitive approaches to CALL than communicative ones therefore we can say that transformational-generative grammar (Chomsky, 1957) and cognitive psychology had the greatest influence on CALL in this era although sociocognitive elements can be witnessed to a very small degree from the middle of the 1990s.

Compared to earlier drill and practice programmes, the programmes of this period offer opportunities for meaningful, contextualised work and make it possible for the learner to be an active participant as the learner has greater choice, control and interaction in the learning process. Instead of isolated sentences, learners are exposed to connected discourse and skill practice is given more importance. The software programmes follow the learning theory of the time by exposing learners to a substantial amount of the target language so that they can form and test their hypotheses about the language and acquire enough insight and understanding about how language works. Emphasis is put on the learning of rules through meaningful observation, analysis and creativity. Errors are regarded essential for testing learners' hypotheses. One of the shortcomings of the mentalist/cognitive approach is related to the view about language performance. It was believed that the recognition of rules is equal to performance.

The software programmes of this period do not require human-to-human interaction and they are usually used by the learner as a stand-alone system. In this case the learner is not engaged in genuine communication because he/she works in a closed system as he/she interacts with the computer. However it is possible to offer opportunities for interaction with other students, for example, the teacher can design learning activities where the software is used in pairs or groups. The teacher can use text reconstruction programmes, concordancing software, multimedia simulations and games to create information gap activities, problem-solving tasks or treasure hunts where students communicate with each other around the computer and not with the computer.

Text reconstruction exercises can be done on paper as well but the computer can make both the teacher and the learners' work more efficient. Teachers can enter text and create rearranged text or cloze exercises. Students work to complete or rearrange the texts as they test their hypotheses about their mentally constructed system of the language. Students can work alone, in pairs or in groups, and hints provided by the computer can assist learners in their learning process. Fun with texts and Storyboard are two examples for the text reconstruction software.

The concordancer is another computer program that can be used for language learning and teaching. Wolff (1997) described it as technologically rudimentary, but very powerful as a cognitive tool (pp. 22-23). Concordance packages make it possible for learners and teachers to get access to examples of real language use and discover patterns that exist in the corpus. Concordancing and corpus based exercises support the descriptive approach to the target language and the cognitive/mentalist approach to language learning as they favour learning by discovery the study of grammar (or vocabulary or discourse or style) takes on the character of research rather than spoonfeeding (Tribble & Jones, 1990, 12). Two examples of concordance packages are the simple, user-friendly Monoconc, which is especially suited to pedagogic applications and the more sophisticated Wordsmith Tools, which are more appropriate for proficient language learners who want to carry out more detailed analyses. A simple free web concordancer that is available at the Virtual Language Centre of the Polytechnic University of Hong Kong is VLC Web Concordancer. The ICT4LT Module 2.4 (www.ict4lt.org) contains not only theoretical but also practical ideas and activities for using concordances in language learning.

Simulations and games offer learners to enter into so called ?computerised microworlds' where they are exposed to language and culture in a meaningful multimedia context. Learners have greater control of learning as in many cases they can decide on the learning path as they walk around and explore the environment. The multimedia feature makes it possible for the learner to choose from a variety of information sources such as text, audio, graphics, or video. The programme can provide optional tools which can aid learners' comprehension such as online dictionary, a glossary of terms, transcripts of audio or video material.

The word processor can be regarded as the first computer application that supported and did not tie the pedagogy of the time when it was conceived. It is an efficient cognitive tool in the process of writing by making it possible to make multiple drafts, revise, and edit previous work. Jonassen (1999) gives many examples for using computers as cognitive mindtools. Mindtools can be useful in helping learners to construct knowledge structures (or mental models) in an active way by engaging with information in suitable contexts as learners work as designers. Mind maps, concept maps, computer applications such as word processing programmes, spreadsheets, and presentation software can be used to represent learners' understanding, and knowledge construction in so called constructivist learning activities.

Authoring tools such as Hypercard, Toolbook, Hyperstudio and Macromedia Director offer the opportunity for the teacher to create programmes that include a variety of media (text, graphics, sound, animation, and video) and hypermedia. Authoring packages are another alternative for teachers to adapt and create materials for their own specific settings. The authoring tools give the technological framework within which the teacher can work and enter his/her own material thus it is easier for the teacher to handle them than the more complicated authoring tools. However, we should note that it limits the teachers' repertoire as the exercise types can be chosen only from the ones that the programme can offer. Hot Potatoes suite is one of the most popular authoring packages. It includes six applications with which you can create interactive multiple-choice, short-answer, jumbled-sentence, crossword, matching/ordering and gap-fill exercises for the web. These exercise types can reflect structuralist or cognitive perspectives to learning depending on how they are exploited. Some of the current tutorial programmes are not behaviourist but they are more related to the cognitive perspective as they provide learners with opportunities to discover how the language works and develop the learners' own understanding by trial and error.

These examples show again the importance of teacher education. Teachers need to be prepared to design learning environments and be able to choose the most appropriate tools and methods for a particular learning situation. Technology is only one of the tools, not more than that.

In spite of the advancement achieved by the end of the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s, CALL has not lived up to its potentials (Kenning & Kenning, 1990; Rüschoff, 1993) mainly because it was not used systematically. Besides the criticism of CALL use, a shift in approaches to language learning towards more social or sociocognitive views led to changes in the field of CALL.

This new era, which is termed Integrative CALL by Warschauer (2000), intends to integrate technology more into the language learning process. The focus is not on what students do with the computer but what they do with other human beings with the help of different technology tools. Social interaction, negotiation of meaning, peer support and peer collaboration in situated learning contexts become the focus of attention. Technology tools should be available for learning and language use whenever they are needed (not once a week in the computer lab) therefore ICT should be integrated into the syllabus, technology should become more transparent and integrated into subject-based classrooms. It also implies that not only teachers but also students need to learn to evaluate different resources, tools and become able to decide which tool (technological or non-technological) to use in each situation of their everyday practice. This means that students have more autonomy in the learning process and should be prepared for this autonomy.

As for the technology side, the multimedia networked computer supports students' technology use by offering a wide range of informational, communicative and publishing tools. Real-life communication networks such as the Internet and integrated distributed learning environments ( network-based groupware applications and programs that allow a large number of users to collaborate over the net) make it possible for learners to work in c ooperative learning environments even if they are physically not present at the same location.

The advancement in technology, the introduction of more appropriate pedagogical frameworks, and the changes in teachers' attitudes towards ICT integration into language learning all contribute to the use of ICT to support pedagogical practices and not to limit them. As a result, more convergence can be seen between foreign language methodology and ICT (Tella, 2001). The social aspect of learning, social interaction becomes more important both in language learning and in CALL. S ociocultural perspectives on learning and teaching (Wells, 2002), on foreign language learning (Lantolf, 2000; Lantolf & Appel, 1994) show a shift towards student centred approaches where students are active participants in the learning process and learner interaction, collaboration plays a more important role (Meskill, 1999; Jager , Nerbonne, & van Essen, 1998). These perspectives on learning are reflected in CALL activities based on different forms of CMC (see Debski, 1997; Warschauer & Kern, 2000).

The web can be used for meaningful, realistic activities. Learners can get easy access to a large variety of resources, search for online information resources, conduct research online, evaluate the information, work on collaborative projects or publish their work for others to see. It has the potential to add something new to the traditional classroom setting if it is used with firm pedagogical goals in mind. More advanced technology by itself does not mean better CALL or better language learning. We can find many websites on the Internet which just replicate the old drill and practice programmes in an online environment but they do not add anything new to it. Reinventing the wheel does not lead any further.

In contemporary society one needs to develop competence in a more diverse set of functional, academic, critical, and electronic skills than before. The acquisition of new skills, new literacies and new pedagogies become very important. Besides traditional literacy skills, multiliteracies (the New London Group, 1996), new literacies such as electronic literacy (see discussion in Shetzer & Warschauer, 2000), critical literacy, cultural literacy, and media literacy gain importance.

New devices (mobile phones with multimedia communication capabilities and handheld devices) and new technologies (Wireless Application Protocol, Personal Digital Assistants, Wireless Markup Language, General Packet Radio Service, Universal Mobile Telecommunications System, and mobile Internet access) make new ways of communication possible. Robert Godwin Jones (1999) was one of the pioneers who discussed the opportunities that lie in mobile technology as an emerging technology in the field of language learning. Since then, he has published many articles in the journal Language Learning & Technology under the column emerging technologies, which cover different mobile devices and their possible implementation into language learning. Colpaert (2004) draws attention to the fact that we cannot witness such a hype in mobile technology that we could see in connection with the Internet. His indication is that mobile technology is still at a stage where development happens at professional level and when it becomes possible for researchers and practitioners in CALL to create their mobile applications with the help of authoring tools then might come the time for hype in mobile technology, as well. He bases his view on the tendencies that can be traced if we review the history of CALL. However, there might be other reasons, as well. It may be considered it an option that we might have learnt from previous mistakes and are cautious to announce any emerging technology as the panacea therefore trying to avoid employing a technology driven approach to language teaching and language learning.

We can see a shift in objectives in the three phases of CALL from a primary focus on accuracy in the first phase to accuracy and fluency in the second one. These phases are related to the goals of foreign and second language learning as for example the second phase covers one component, the linguistic competence, of Canale and Swain's (1980) communicative competence model. For the 21^st century agency is the added objective to the previous ones. Murray (cited in Warschauer, 2000) defines agency as the satisfying power to take meaningful action and see the results of our decisions and choices'. The computer can be used as a means to help students construct their own representation of the world by creating a webpage or a multimedia document that is published on the web. In this case students do not write for the teacher but they work on an authentic or semi-authentic task for a real audience. The computer gives students the means to make their thoughts and views public.

Bax (2003) uses Warschauer's (2000) categories as a starting point but he has some critical remarks about some unclear criteria and terminology in Warschauer's phases of CALL. His clarifications and amendments can be seen in Table 2. Bax wanted to create a framework for CALL that is not only a historical review with facts about technologies but also a critical analysis that can be used as guidance in defining our practice in more detail. Bax emphasises that his categories are not phases of CALL but approaches to CALL, with which he intends to give a broader framework with less focus on the historical timeline and giving more details about the features of a specific approach. According to him, institutions and classrooms can be analysed in more detail with this model. The labels that he uses for the three approaches are deliberately different from Warschauer's although the time period and the main features of each category are very similar to the ones in Warschauer's work. The labels Restricted, Open and Integrated CALL reflect not only the supposed underlying learning theory as in Warschauer's model but other key dimensions as well. The key dimensions of the Bax model can be seen in the first row of Table 2.

Bax argues that we are still in the Open phase of CALL because the descriptors that define Integrated CALL are not implemented into practice to a significant degree as we have not reached the desired goal of CALL's true integration into language learning and teaching. Sporadically it is present, some features of it are present, but in some key dimensions the practices show a more mixed picture with elements that come from the Restricted and Open categories and others from the Integrated one. There might be many different reasons for this mixture such as teachers' attitudes, institutional policy, and the technology that is used. He sees normalisation as the aim towards which we should move. By normalisation Bax (2003) means the stage when the technology becomes invisible, embedded in everyday practice and hence normalised (p. 23).

Some lessons need to be learnt from the history of CALL. We should not be overwhelmed by technology and design the learning environment to suit the medium but the other way round, first we should design the learning environment and only after that should we consider the role that each medium can play in it ( Baumgartner, 2004, Colpaert, 2004). We need to overcome the technology driven view and think of technologies as tools to support, assist and not to determine the educational interaction. We are still on the road to achieve this and teacher development has a crucial role in it.

Table 2 . Bax's three approaches to CALL

Content	Type of task	Type of student activity	Type of feedback	Teacher roles	Teacher attitudes	Position in curriculum	Position in lesson	Physical position of computer
Restricted CALL
Language system	Closed drills Quizzes	Text reconstruction Answering closed questions Minimal interaction with other students	Correct/ incorrect	Monitor	Exaggerated fear and/or awe	Not integrated into syllabus-optional, extra Technology precedes syllabus and learner needs	Whole CALL lesson	Separate computer lab

Open CALL
System and skills	Simulations Games CMC	Interacting with the computer Occasional interaction with other students	Focus of linguistic skills development Open, flexible	Monitor/ facilitator	Exaggerated fear and/or awe	Toy Not integrated into syllabus-optional, extra Technology precedes syllabus and learner needs	Whole CALL lesson	Separate lab-perhaps devoted to languages

Integrated CALL
Integrated language skills work Mixed skills and system	CMC WP e-mail Any, as appropriate to the immediate needs	Frequent interaction with other students Some interaction with computer through the lesson	Interpreting, evaluating, commenting, stimulating thought	Facilitator/ manager	Normal part of teaching-normalised	Tool for learning Normalised integrated into syllabus, adapted to learners' needs Analysis of needs and context precedes decisions about technology	Smaller part of every lesson	In every classroom, on every desk, in every bag

(Bax 2003)

Learning and teaching patterns in CALL The Role of the Computer in CALL

Besides the terminology and the acronyms that were discussed above, the role of the computer in education can add another dimension to the conceptualisation of CALL. Taylor (1980) looked at computer use in education in general and identified three roles of the computer: tutor, tool and tutee. His framework was a starting point for classifications later on in CALL however modifications had to be made due to technological advancement, new trends in pedagogical technology and related fields. In Taylor's terms when the computer functions as a tutor, it is programmed by experts to present the subject matter to the student. The student responds and the computer evaluates the student's input and keeps record of the student's achievement. What is presented next is based on the results of the evaluation. The computer as a tool does not evaluate student input, it supports the student in the completion of tasks. The third role of the computer, tutee, means that the computer is programmed by the teacher or by the student to act either as a tutor or a tool.

Higgins (1983) uses two possible models of the teacher magister and pedagogue to look at the roles that can be assigned to the computer in CALL. The computer as magister chooses the order in which things happen, what is to be learned, and the kind of activity that will be carried out (Higgins, 1983:4). The magister role can be associated with programmed learning. Higgins argues that the computer has been successful as magister only in limited ways and the original language laboratories failed to fulfil the expectations because they were used as magisters. He presents cases for using the computer as a pedagogue, which is close in meaning to tool-use in Taylor's classification.

Levy (1997) applies Taylor's typology to CALL and proposes a tutor-tool framework with which he intends to clarify important issues about the learning environment, methodology, learner training, the roles of the teacher and the learner, integration and the curriculum, and evaluation. Bax (2003) criticises Levy's work that it is only a review and not a critical analysis of the history of CALL. It is true that the chapter on the history of CALL is an objective historical review but we can find a reflective and interpretive approach in another chapter where he discusses the tutor-tool framework with its implications for methodology, teacher and learner expectations, and the teacher's role. Levy builds on Taylor's definition and describes the computer as a tutor when it evaluates the learner, controls the learning process, and acts as a temporary substitute for the teacher. He puts emphasis on the temporary substitution of the teacher by the computer and not a permanent one and in this case the computer can be effectively used as a tutor. Computer programmes like grammar drills, vocabulary flashcards are examples of computers in tutor roles. The computer as a tool has a non-directive role, it is neutral as it is not predetermined how it can be used, it does not evaluate but it is used to increase efficiency and enhance the learning process. Students need to learn how to use computers as tools effectively. The teacher may give directions to the students or the students can work autonomously if they have the knowledge and the expertise. We can divide computers in the tool role into two main groups. In the first group we can find examples that are general applications such as Word processors, databases, presentation software, web search engines, and e-mail programmes. Tools that are developed specifically for language learning belong to the second group such as concordances, electronic dictionaries, and three-dimensional multimedia language learning environments.

When Levy popularised his framework in 1997, one of his aims was to clear up the misunderstanding that CALL had only a tutorial type function and give a wider recognition of the tool role of the computer. Within a few years we could witness a shift towards the tool use which started to dominate literature, however, what was going on in practice was more mixed. Hubbard and Bradin Siskin (2004) discuss the reasons why tutorial CALL has been marginalised with the intention to find its place again in the mainstream of the field. They suggest that tutorial and tool-oriented CALL should not be seen as mutually exclusive categories since they can coexist. There are software packages that include both tutorial and tool functions, and some software that are tutorial in nature, can be exploited in a different way. Adding interactivity to a tutorial CALL application or creating information gap between students are such examples. Therefore we should rather speak of the degree to which a particular software application embodies the characteristics of tutor, tool, or both and the quality of the software as a tutor, tool, or both rather than forcing a classification as one or the other (Hubbard & Bradin Siskin, 2004: 456).

One of the most important characteristics of tutorial software is that it evaluates (Levy, 1997: 181) but with this definition we exclude from the category of tutorial software activities that do not include evaluation but have some teaching presence. Therefore Hubbard and Bradin Siskin suggest expanding the definition of tutorial CALL to include this aspect. According to their definition tutorial CALL refers to the implementation of computer programmes (disk, CD-ROM, web-based, etc.) that include an identifiable teaching presence specifically for improving some aspect of language proficiency (Hubbard & Bradin Siskin, 2004, p. 457).

Compared to the tutor-tool categorisation, the computer as stimulus is not such a widespread category in literature. It refers to software that can stimulate students' discussion, critical thinking, or writing (Taylor & Perez in Warschauer, 1996). Simulation programmes such as SimCity and Oregon Trail are examples of this category but many of these activities were not specifically designed for language learners. The limited use of the computer as stimulus can be attributed to the fact that many applications that fall either within the tutorial or the tool category can be adapted to correspond to stimulus use. Therefore it might be better to keep the picture more clear-cut and just focus on the degree to which tutor and tool use are present.

This section intended to give an overview of the role that the computer can play in the learning process and summarise the affordances and constraints that lie in each option since teachers need to employ a critical approach towards technology and understand the conditions under which various technologies might support their own teaching practices and students' learning goals.

The Role of the Teacher and the Student in CALL

When the learning environment is designed, it is very important to take into consideration the role of the participants and the relationship between them. In this section different perspectives on the role of the teacher and the student are discussed with reference to the prevailing learning environment that it is used in.

Different roles can be assigned to the teacher in technology-rich environments. The extreme cases are when the teacher is excluded altogether or the teacher is given central role. In Ahmad et al.'s model (1985) the teacher has very limited role in CALL, only some ergonomic considerations are left for the teacher. The three main factors of CALL in their model are the learner, the language, and the computer. The computer is mainly used as a tutor in this model and the learner interacts with the computer in an individualised fashion. The triangular model developed by Farrington (1986) shows a different approach as the computer is not given such a central role and it is used more like a tool not as a tutor. This model can be said to have both tutor and tool like features but it is more shifted towards the tool use of the computer if we employ Hubbard and Bradin Siskin's concept (2004) about the degree to which it embodies the characteristics of tutor, tool, or both. It is almost evident from the tool use of the computer that the teacher has a more important role in the learning process. Farrington found that the translation programme that he described was most effectively used when the teacher managed the learning and the whole class interacted with the computer in small groups. The features of the Ahmad model make it more suitable for individualised work and self-study, usually in a self-access centre. Farrington, however, emphasises that activities with CALL applications should be integrated into non-computer classroom work. Despite the differences between the two models, they reflect the common features of the time that learners work with the computer and not with each other via the computer.

Learning theories which show a shift towards delegating more responsibility to the learner in the learning process bring about changes in teacher and student roles. The communicative and the social aspects are emphasised in the current terminology that describes the incorporation of technology into language learning with the phrases that students work via or around the computer. Both phrases reflect that the computer has no central role in the learning process but it is used as a tool. Working around the computer implies that learners are present at the same location either in-class or out-of-class and work on tasks together cooperatively or collaboratively. Learners can work via the computer as well when they are at the same place to share resources or divide the work between each other and send their work to the others through the computer. However, it is more common to work via the computer when learners are at distant locations and they communicate with each other through the computer (CMC).

Sociocognitive, socio-constructivist and sociocultural approaches to learning balance learners' social interaction, communication, individual activity and reflection as social interaction can lead to individual learning; understanding can be accomplished by participating in social forms of interaction and communication, and by being a participant in a community of practice or learning. In collaborative learning situations students are active participants with scaffolding, through support from more experienced peers. Support from the teacher and other learners can help students to take on more responsibility for the learning process and become more autonomous.

With the tool use of the computer -or technology in general- and the learner's bigger autonomy in the learning process, the teacher's roles are most often described as to give guidance, scaffolding to the learner, monitor the learner's work, and facilitate the learning process. These roles might be the most characteristic but we should not forget about the other roles that can be assigned to the teacher in a technology-rich learning environment such as manager of CMC activities, software or web developer, consumer of CALL software or researcher.

Learning is a complex process therefore we should not limit the teacher's role or the learner's role to one specific type but we should assign roles to the participants that are the most suitable ones under the given circumstances. There is a repertoire of roles both for the teacher and the learner, and it might be the case that the teacher needs to shift from the facilitator role to a more tutor type of role if more direct teacher intervention is needed or vice versa. For example, students are working collaboratively on a project and they should create a website to synthesise their work and publish their ideas. They might come across some technical difficulties, they might not know how to put their ideas in a hypermedia format then a more tutorial type of intervention is needed from the teacher for that particular sub-section of the learning process. As a consequence, it is very important for the teacher to be able to decide which role is the most applicable one under the circumstances. This reinforces that the teacher is a key player in the effective implementation of technology into the learning environment.

Sometimes it is believed that teachers have a smaller role as learner autonomy becomes more important. However, learners have to be prepared for this autonomy and the teacher's expertise and autonomy is needed to prepare students to take on responsibility for their own learning. Therefore it is ensured that the teacher has an important role but he/she has to be prepared to become accustomed to the transformed situation and be able to fulfil his/her duties properly.

CALL researchers regard CALL teacher education very important in achieving that teachers use technology to its potentials in language teaching. Hubbard & Levy (in press) describe a possible approach to CALL teacher education and categorise the roles for those people who are engaged in CALL into two main groups: institutional and functional. Institutional roles usually reflect the job titles or description of the job that is fulfilled by the person such as pre-service and in-service classroom teachers, CALL specialists, and CALL professionals. Functional roles include practitioners, developers, researchers, and trainers. The roles that can be assigned to the classroom teacher show that both technical and pedagogical knowledge and skills should be developed in teacher education. However it should be noted that for a classroom teacher not all the functional roles have equal importance. Classroom teachers mainly work as practitioners, but they adapt and develop learning materials, and design learning environments, as well, therefore their CALL teacher education should centre on these categories.

This section summarized the different roles that learners and teachers might have in technology-rich environments. A historical perspective was given by referring to different learning theories, language teaching approaches and the relevant roles that were assigned to learners and teachers in that period. All in all, it should be stated that all the different roles have their place in the learning process but it takes careful consideration and reflection to decide which one should be used in a given situation to make the most out of the learning environment.

Summary

The present paper considered the conceptualisation of CALL from different perspectives. A detailed historical analysis of CALL was given not only to review the trends, but also to analyse them in more detail since past and present practices should inform future use of CALL and due to this there is a lot that we can learn from them.

References

Ahmad , K., Corbett, G., Rogers, M., & Sussex, R. (1985). Computers, language learning and language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Baumgartner , P. (2004, September). E-Education - Educational scenarios, standards and tools. Paper presented at the EuroCALL Conference, Vienna.
Bax, S. (2003). CALL-past, present and future. System, 31, 13-28.
Bloomfield , L. (1933). Language. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1, 1-47.
Chapelle, C. A. (2001). Computer applications in second language acquisition: Foundations for teaching, testing and research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Chomsky , N. (1957). Syntactic structures. The Hague: Mouton.
Colpaert, J. (2004). Editorial: From courseware to coursewear. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 17(3-4), 261-266.
Debski, R. (1997). Support of creativity and collaboration in the language classroom: A new role for technology. In R. Debski, Gassin, J. & Smith, M. (Eds). (1997). Language Learning Through Social Computing. (pp 39-65). Melbourne: Applied Linguistics Association of Australia and the Horwood Language Centre.
Farrington, B . (1986). Triangular mode working: The LITTRE project in the field. System, 14(2), 199-204.
Godwin-Jones, R. (1999). Emerging technologies: Mobile computing and language learning. Language Learning & Technology 2(2), 7-11. http://llt.msu.edu/vol2num2/pdf/emerging.pdf
Higgins , J. (1983). Can computers teach? CALICO Journal, 1(2), 4-6.
Hubbard , P., & Bradin Siskin, C. (2004). Another look at tutorial CALL. ReCALL, 16(2), 448-461.
Hubbard , P. & Levy, M. (Eds.). (in press). Teacher education in CALL: An International Perspective. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Retrieved 14 May, 2005, from http://www.stanford.edu/~efs/callcourse/CALL1.htm
ICT4LT http://www.ict4lt.org
Jager, S., Nerbonne, J., & van Essen, A. (Eds.). (1998). Language teaching and language technology. Lisse, the Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Jonassen, D. H. (1999). Computers as Mindtools for Schools: Engaging Critical Thinking (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Kenning, M.-M. (1990). State of the art article: Computer-assisted language learning. Language Teaching, 23(2), 67-76.
Kenning, M.-M., & Kenning, M. J. (1990). Computers and language learning: Current theory and practice. New York: Ellis Horwood.
Kern, R., & Warschauer, M. (2000). Introduction: Theory and practice of networked-based language teaching. In M. Warschauer & R. Kern (Eds.), Network-based language teaching: Concepts and practice (pp. 1-19). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Lantolf, J. P. (Ed.). (2000). Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lantolf, J. P., & Appel, G. (Eds.). (1994). Vygotskian Approaches to Second Language Research. Norwood, NJ.: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Levy, M. (1997). Computer assisted language learning: Context and conceptualization. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
Meskill, C. (1999). Computers as tools for socio-collaborative language learning. In K. Cameron (Ed), Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) Media Design and Applications ( pp 141-162). Lisse, the Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Rüschoff, B. (1993). Language learning and information technology: State of the art. CALICO Journal, 10(3), 5-17.
Shetzer , H., & Warschauer , M. (2000). An electronic literacy approach to network-based language teaching. In M. Warschauer & R. Kern (Eds.), Network-based language teaching: Concepts and practice (pp. 171-185). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Skinner, B. F. (1954). The science of learning and the art of teaching. Harvard Educational Review, 24(2), 86-97.
Taylor , R. P. (Ed.). (1980). The computer in the school: Tutor, tool, tutee. New York: Teachers College Press.
Tella, S. (2001). Language teacher education and the challenges of information and communication technologies (ICTs): Finnish perspectives. In R. Easton (Ed.), Collection of case studies on examples of good practice in Teacher Education with a focus on organisational aspects and integrated concepts of language education (pp. 50?60). Graz: European Centre for Modern Languages. Retrieved 23 July, 2003, from http://www.ecml.at/documents/213pubEaston_2001E.pdf
The New London Group . (1996). A pedagogy of multiliteracies: Designing social futures. Harvard Educational Review, 66 (1), 60-91.
Tribble, C., & Jones, G. (1990). Concordances in the classroom. London and New York: Longman.
Warschauer, M. (1996). Computer-assisted language learning: An introduction. In S. Fotos (Ed.), Multimedia language teaching (pp. 3-20). Tokyo: Logos International.
Warschauer, M. (2000). The death of cyberspace and the rebirth of CALL. English Teachers' Journal, 53, 61-67.
Warschauer, M., & Healey, D. (1998). Computers and language learning: An overview. Language Teaching, 31, 57-71.
Warschauer, M., & Kern, R. (Eds.) (2000). Network-based language teaching: Concepts and Practice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Wells, G. (2002). Inquiry as an Orientation for Learning, Teaching and Teacher Education. In G. Wells & G. Claxton (Eds.), Learning for Life in the 21st Century: Sociocultural Perspectives on the Future of Education (pp. 197-210). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Wolff , D. (1997). Computers as cognitive tools in the language classroom. In A. K. Korsvold & B. Rüschoff (Eds.), New technologies in language learning and teaching (pp. 17-26). Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing.
Software programmes:
Text reconstruction programmes:
Fun with texts [Computer software]. Maidenhead: Camsoft. Demo available at: http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/fwt.htm
Storyboard [Computer software]. London: Wida Software. Demo available at: http://www.wida.co.uk/
Concordancing packages:
Monoconc Pro (Version 2.2) [Computer software]. Athelstan. Demo available at: http://www.athel.com/mono.html#monopro
Scott , M. Wordsmith Tools (Version 4.0) [Computer software]. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Demo available at: http://www.lexically.net/wordsmith/
VLP Web Concordancer. Available at the Virtual Language Centre of the Polytechnic University of Hong Kong http://www.edict.com.hk/concordance/
Simulations, games:
Oregon trail (2004). (5^th edition) [Computer software]. San Francisco, CA.: Riverdeep Interactive Learning, The Learning Company. Free 2-day trial version available at: http://www.download.com/Oregon-Trail-5th-Edition/3000-7502_4-10301783.html
Sim City http://simcity.ea.com/
Authoring packages:
Arneil, S., & Holmes, M. (2003). Hot Potatoes (Version 6) [Computer software]. Victoria, B.C., Canada: Half-Baked Software Inc. Available at: http://web.uvic.ca/hrd/halfbaked/

Mass-media in the Context of the Problem of Ecological Transformations of Thinking

The aggregate of global problems, including ecological, that have appeared before humanity, forced research workers and philosophers to pay attention to the subject of human consciousness transformation, and change its main orientations and revaluation of values. The author viewing the classical ideas about the connection of practice, knowledge and consciousness states his own vision about the ways mass-media could be attached to this process.

Of another issue of Freeside Europe , I had the honor to express my own reflections in connection with the actuality of the modern human ecological style of thinking formation [1]. Then it was highlighted that under the influence of ecological knowledge achievements there is a new open ecological style of thinking formation in modern science (in the broad sense of the word), which is based on tolerance, the dialogue of different forms of cognition of outward things, and related to a search leading out of the modern global crises. At the same time it was admitted that such a thinking style of formation is protracted, a difficult process which needs considerable effort from specialists in the different spheres of human activity. The opinion of Erwin Laslo was mentioned in that article. He said, that information and education nowadays are the substantial elements of steady human development: We need more information in essence, to knock until masses, adults, young, and old people of all ages answer The second idea is, probably, education, to make contact with young people, with those, who will come to the world in the role of leaders and active members of the society in ten or twenty years [2]. Today within the framework of another issue of Freeside Europe [online] Journal - Culture of the Information Age, it is desirable to express some reflections concerning the role and context of information technologies and mass-media in general in ecological transformations of thinking.

Therefore, one of the most popular subjects of the scientific and philosophical reflections today is the problem of the so-called revolution of consciousness the revision and transformation of modern human aims and values that must become a key moment for overcoming crises of the modern world [3]. Actually science and philosophy have come to the stage of concretely working out effective, technological and productive schemes for ways of activating the mechanisms of forming new, more humanistic and ecological conditions for consciousness in the modern world and a proper style of thinking, as well. And in this case, to our mind, this can considerably help modern civilization. Human dependence on information and mass-media, as its basic guide at certain circumstances, will probably become the very desirable life-buoy in the stormy sea of global problems. To substantiate my opinion I will allow myself to analyze certain general mechanisms that lead to human thinking transformations.

First of all it is quite obvious, that any knowledge has its practical genesis. Practice can also be considered today as a brainwork concerning consumption and assimilation of certain informative product. Speaking otherwise, if practice were traditionally defined as a sensual-subject human activity, in our opinion, today in the period of information it is possible to speak about practice as an intellectually-informative activity with its substance of natural and social objects of assimilation. In the other words, it is possible today to talk about the informative practice.

At the same time, it should be remembered that knowledge is the interiorization of practical actions, because the pre-condition of a cognitive thinking process, which is developed from practice, is the transmitting into the internal plan of operations with an actual object. Paying attention to this point and attracting the concept of informative practice, we can create a certain chain: informative practice - interiorization of informative practical experience - vital knowledge - system of orientations and principles of world perception and behaviour in it practice ( on the base of knowledge objectifying) objective reality (certain social relations). This scheme, in our point of view demonstrates evidently, that human knowledge, the system of orientations and principles, and lastly, the method of behaviour in the world and the selected model of public relations depend on the informative product, which the human uses. Therefore, if an informative product has the powerful humanistic and ecological load, it is as pre-condition of cognitive and thinking process will be able to generate steady and practically useful ecological knowledge, which afterwards can be realized during new practical activity concerning objective reality which occurs through this (in certain sense) abstract ecological knowledge. V. Il'yin wrote that: Practice, when it is based on the abstract action, is an activity with the real subject and in fact is founded on the objectifying knowledge to, so to speak, further transmit reality, which is carried out already through an objective reality and not a subject-mental or physiological one.

On the other hand, certain image building that absorbs the peculiarities of certain kind of knowledge (ecological knowledge in our case) is the result of an objectively gained ecological knowledge through informative product consumption. Thus, informative practice, both on scientific-theoretical and everyday level, is able to influence thinking processes and human consciousness by using the system of ecological knowledge and its results that is always determined by certain historically-cultural terms. So talks about the transformation of ideological and moral ideas of the human view of the world can be placed from the theoretical sphere to a practical one. Using a powerful potential of modern mass-media (both as the classically printed form, and, foremost, electronic) it is possible to attain a real reorganization of effective and mental human attitude to the world, a human position in the structure of social and natural life. This process viewed outwards will be similar to that one framed by V. Zvihlianych as a transformation of a certain knowledge process of the world views on the orientations of human actions, on the one hand, and as an exposure of social-institutionalized forms of human activity, that maximally open space for comprehensive activisation of the personality creative potentials, and determine the rationalization of the humanistic orientations of the process of the human vital functions, on the other hand.

However having expounded the possible scheme of ecologization of thinking of modern man and the transformation of his consciousness we have two other problems: first, and foremost, mass-media representatives and owners of informative resources can make ecological and humanistic subjects interesting; and, secondly, it is necessary to give answers to the question on the ecologically loaded informative product, which must remain for a long time interesting for people of different ages, social and economic position, cultural traditions and, at last, give the desirable result - humanization and ecologization of thinking.

Solving the first problem obviously goes beyond scientific frames and reaches into the economic and political sphere. Only by joint efforts of the public, the politicians and public officials is it possible to convert informative space from the means of material welfare and political dividends into the effective instruments of global problems of today by solving the whole circle of problems.

Concerning the second problem, it is foremost necessary to consider the fact that the task must consist not only of the mechanical distribution of the humanistically exposed and ecologically orientated information. The problem is that in modern terms through the increase of the original role of the individual in all spheres of public life, the encouragement of the capacity for self-education, self-perfection, the aspiration for self-realization has been acquired. It has primary importance because this finds a reply in the different cultural and social traditions. Due to certain warnings the concepts of self-realization and self-perfection are close and clear to both western man with his deep individualism and progressiveness, and representative of east civilizations with its original religiousness and patriarchal character. Thus, one of the principal aims of creation, as we say the ecological informative product, must be the stimulation of processes of our own, personal reflection of either problems of human existence and social relations in the humanistic and ecological key. However, it is obvious, that principles, and aims, and methods of the ecologically loaded informative product creation need special research and can become the subject of separate scientific research.

Taking into consideration the above mentioned we can confirm that there is a real possibility to begin the process of practical transformation of aims and values of modern human transformation of consciousness, and this will be the beginning of a great internal work for the whole human civilization to overcome crises of the modern world. An active bond with mass-media in this process is not a certain contribution to the global fashion, but socially, politically, economically and ecologically caused by the requirements provided by time. Certainly, if humanity and foremost its elite (both intellectual and financial-political) indeed aims at giving the real outlines to the slogans about stable the development of civilization.

The New Corinthians: How the Web is Socialising Journalism

James Cameron¹ (1911-1985), arguably the greatest British journalist of the last 100 years, always insisted that journalism is a craft. Now craft implies pride in work, integrity in dealing with customers, rites of passage, and long years of training to acquire the requisite skills/knowledge.

But that was then. Today, journalism is a profession. Many aspiring hacks now need a university or other accredited qualification, and, except in the Anglo-American world, a government issued license to qualify as a journalist. In some countries you're compelled by regulations to belong to a recognized association and to obey its code of standards in order to practice and earn a living as a journalist.

The march towards professionalism began with the rise of the mass media in the latter part of the 19^th century, a development made possible by the invention of the rotary printing press, cheap papermaking from wood pulp, and mass literacy.

Cheap mass circulation newspapers gave proprietors the kind of political influence they never had before. The press was becoming an increasingly powerful social force, a counter-balance to big business and the state. However, this power was fragile. Corporations and governments resisted the press's self-appointed role of watchdog and muckraker. But the press barons fought back.

In response to state and corporate resistance to openness and disclosure of information, they raised the banner of the public's right to know as a fundamental democratic freedom. To counter charges of irresponsible reporting, journalists developed rigorous techniques for gathering, distilling and presenting information; and, to standardize these procedures and wrap them in an ethical framework, a normative model for reporting, carved in stone, was crafted: impartiality, objectivity, accuracy, transparency.

Thus was Cameron's craft gradually professionalized, and, in the process, turned into an exclusive club with a privileged membership.

Today, this carefully constructed edifice is crumbling as the read/write web blows away the need to be a member of any such club to be able to practice journalism. Arguments about who is or is not a journalist is a sideshow, a pre-occupation mostly of self-styled guardians of truth. The inexorable fact is that the genie is out of the bottle and a significant number of unqualified people are doing journalism without permission from anyone.

So, let us accept that the authorities can no longer decide who is or is not a journalist. We have no choice. But we need to ask some crucial questions: Who will now enforce the rules and codes? What is to become of them? Should we care? Do we still need them? Are they fit for purpose in the digital age?

Digital media, and in particular, it's social offsprings social media such as blogs, vlogs, wikis, IM; social networks such as MySpace, Facebook, Bebo, Tagworld, Orkut etc., and social bookmarking services such as Furl, Del.icio.us, DIGG, StumbleUpon, MyWeb have enabled the amateurisation of the media. The barbarians have entered the gates. Is the empire on the verge of collapse?

Nowadays, the word amateur is being deployed by media professionals to belittle the media-making efforts of bloggers and others who create media productions outside the journalism guilds. Such reporting is deemed unreliable, biased, subjective; they are unaccountable, the facts and the sources unverifiable.

All of this must be puzzling to historians of the modern mass media. Consider the first newspaper in English, a translation of a Dutch coranto, printed in Amsterdam in December 1620 and exported to England. It began with an apology, a typographical error, a number of lies and disinformation. The apology appeared in the first line of the publication: "The new tydings out of Italie are not yet com". The error (in spelling) was in the date: "The 2. of Decemember". The lies? The dates of many events were brought forward to make the news appear fresher than they were. The disinformation? Many news items in the Dutch edition which might have displeased the English government were not translated for the English edition out of fear that the authorities would seize or ban the publication.² Verily, a very unprofessional beginning!

And who were the reporters for the early periodical press? Postmasters, clergymen, sheriffs, burghers, shipping clerks, court officials, merchants, travellers. In a word, amateurs!

So now we've come full circle: from 17^th/18^th century amateurism, to 19^th/20^th century professionalism and back to amateurism in the 21^st century.

Here we use amateur in the noble, Corinthian sense someone or an activity motivated by love. And therein lies the problem. Amateur ethics, motivated by love, crashes against professional ethics, driven by commercial gain. Can they be reconciled?

The opposing principles characterizing the amateur and professional worldviews may be summarized thus:

Amateur

play for love

particioation primary, winning secondary

play to develop team spirit, cooperation, org skills

fair play, the game's the thing

Professional

play for pay

winning is everything

play only to win

zero sum game, win at all cost

However, the differences between 17^th century amateur reporters and 21^st century citizen journalists go beyond stark polarities. The former were contributors to the new media of their age but over whose operation, growth and development they had no influence or control; their 21^st century counterparts, on the other hand, are contributors to a new media which they themselves are creating. What started out as people's desire for unfiltered, independent self-expression is threatening to overthrow the old order in the world of media. How come?

The old media model was/is based on assembling disparate and varied information news reports, share prices, weather reports, crosswords, classified ads, sports scores, horoscopes etc. and selling this ensemble to readers. Today that cornucopia is being unbundled: content is cut loose from the formal wrapper, messages from their media container. (Note the dire fate of newspaper classified ads, financial information, product reviews, real estate and job ads as they become Craiglisted and Monsterised).

This unbundling has serious implications for the economic foundation of the media business as we have known it. For the journalists employed in these institutions, two critical changes, among many, stand out: their roles as gatekeepers between you and the world outside your window is irrevocably undermined and the line between themselves as producers of tydings and the former audience as consumers has become blurred.

There is a big misconception among professional journalists that the new media is about news. Wrong. It is about self-expression, it is about participating in defining and shaping the information/communication environments in which we live. The various forms of digital media blogging, podcasting, social bookmarking and networking etc. are merely the means and the channels for achieving this. An entire generation call them the digital natives or the new Corinthians is creating an open, collaborative, networked communications infrastructure in opposition to the closed, top down, hierarchical traditional media organizations, which have dominated the media universe since the 19th century.

Demanding that these digital natives adhere to old methods of discovering and learning about the world will not do. They are crafting their own methods, thank you very much. Ten years ago Slashdot, Kuro5hin and others pioneered peer-to-peer coverage of technology. Stories gained credibility through the trust and reputation of peers. Digg has added collaborative filtering via powerful algorithms; Del.icio.us lets you organize the world via shared social taxonomies. Even some of the backend functions of the news business have been socialized: Wikipedia for reference, Answers.com for expert sources, Flickr for pictures.

All these new ways of understanding, making and managing media are only a specific case of the mass participatory culture made possible by digital technology. All of a sudden, unprecedented numbers of people can express themselves and connect with each other on a global scale. And here is a salient feature of this mass participation: it is organized activity without a central organization. More precisely, it is a self-organized collaborative endeavour in which people combine their ideas, knowledge, talents, skills without an hierarchy controlling and co-ordinating their activities.

Confronted by a disruptive technology, process or service, the disrupted party has only a limited number of responses: they can ignore it not a viable choice for survival; they can try to destroy it?this is the kill the messenger option which may destroy the messenger (e.g. Napster) but fail to kill the message (i.e. file sharing); they can posit competitive offerings but note the fate of newspaper facsimile editions versus RSS; or they can co-opt or embrace the new?note media mogul Rupert Murdoch's Damascene conversion and his subsequent moves in the digital media space.³

It is hard for a mature, long-dominant culture to make radical changes to its ideology and practice. And that is why many newspaper groups still cling to the command and control model even as their businesses head for the butchers⁴ and their customers ?head into the cemetery⁵. Bold and adventurous though he is, Rupert Murdoch has only chosen co-optation (buying the number one social networking service MySpace); however, full embrace of the new world is a revolutionary step, a rupture in the old order. Anyone doubting the difficulty of such a move need only look at the upheavals and dislocations being experienced by the UK's Telegraph Groups as it re-engineer its news gathering/reporting processes towards a networked journalism model.

The momentum of change is with the new Corinthians. The open source ethos and method of work/production, which began in the periphery with collaborative software development, is moving to centre stage by way of the blogging revolution and open standards in web services. In tagging, syndication, ranking and bookmarking we have the rudiments of a peer-to-peer trust, reputation and recommendation system well suited to self-regulating collaborative networks⁶. These could be taken as analogous, but not identical to, the checks and balances of traditional journalism, but we should not belabour the points of difference too much.

In mainstream media editorial authority is concentrated in the hands of a single, all-powerful person whereas in social media it is distributed among many voices. This could be seen as a weakness and critics point to it as the Achilles heel of Web journalism. Yet in many instances, the networked world, e.g. the blogosphere, has proven to be much better (and quicker) at correcting errors, falsity, lies and distortions than the mainstream media.

As the number of people who participate in open, collaborative, networked communications increases, the veracity of messages will improve and the need for corporate gatekeepers and standards-setters will decrease. Will we all become Corinthians then?

Notes

1) See http://tinyurl.com/ykdalv

2) Mitchell Stephens, A History of News. Wadsworth Publishing. 1996.

3) Speech by Rupert Murdoch to the American Society of Newspaper Editors

(http://www.newscorp.com/news/news_247.html)

4) Vin Crosbie, "A Date with the Butcher" (http://tinyurl.com/ljjh3)

5) "Buffett: Newspapers are a business in permanent decline" (http://tinyurl.com/ycx4a5 )

6) Tim O'Reilly, "The Architecture of Participation" (http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/wlg/3017 )

What Online Pictures Tell About Demonstrations in Budapest

Comparing photos that have appeared on the net: Index, Magyar Nemzet Online and Nepszabadsag Online.

The event: 23rd October 2006, Budapest demonstrations, rioting, confrontation between the police and the demonstrators, dissipation of the crowd in the streets of Budapest after the commemoration of the Revolution of 1956.

Picture galleries: Selection of pictures from Index, Magyar Nemzet Online and Nepszabadsag Online internet newspapers.

Links of photo galleries

MNO:http://www.mno.hu/index.mno?cikk=379917&rvt=61&s_text=K%E9pgal%E9ria&s_texttype=4

NOL: http://www.nol.hu/cikk/421773/

Index: http://index.hu/politika/belfold/2006/elkurtuk/galeriak/

Looking at the pictures at a first glance it is quite evident that all the 3 online newspapers showed different kinds of pictures of the events: from police acts to acts of the Hungarian citizens, from demonstrators holding flags to the bleeding injured. For example a huge crowd in front of the police troop, sortie of the police, these are all available to look at in the picture galleries of the mentioned online newspapers.

The photographers took pictures of everything that met their eyes, without being interested in who is right and who is wrong, they just simply followed the events and took pictures of all incidents. At the same time it would be interesting to know how the selection happened, what principle they used to select 60-70 pictures from the hundreds of photos taken.

The photos are shocking and astounding. The pictures of bleeding people, aggression and violence have a strong effect on the readers. The events were broadcast live by most TV channels, the journalists and photographers being in the front line risking their own physical safety: tear gas, water pump, rubber bullets from the police, demonstrators throwing stones and Molotov cocktails. The journalists were between the frying pan and the fire.

An interesting article was published about the situation of the journalists on 23^rd October with the title: The Hungarian media was left alone (http://emasa.hu/cikk.php?page=radio&id=1889). The article describes the consequences that media participation has made on the events and street fights in Budapest - in other words how media participation affected the events. Members of the media had a round-table discussion about this recently with the topic how September and October events in Budapest were broadcast in the media. We are informed that the RTL Klub TV channel broadcast the events every half an hour, while other channels had live broadcasting without pause. According to Mihaly Kovacs from RTL Klub, summary reports every half an hour are more effective than continuity.

The article also mentions the situation of the journalists who participated in the events. The Head of Hungarian Radio's Publications for example reported that they were trying to plan their escape from the venues. He writes that the police told them that they do everything for their safety, but cannot guarantee their protection.

Members of the media agreed that it is a problem if the journalists are not there during the events, but it can also be a problem if their participation is too much. András Király, journalist of Index writes that: we did too well even when there was no event. On Thursday, after the demonstrations at the Hungarian Television, there were 200 journalists together besides only 10-20 young riotous demonstrators who were asking them where to go. The 600 policemen had to dissipate the crowd because of the journalists. There is a BBC policy, which says that if a journalist feels that his/her participation affects the outcome of the event then he/she has to pull back. Király feels that this principle is not kept in Hungary.

Thinking over the events of the day, this may just be true. Those who caused rioting knew exactly that the media will be there and they made good use of it. The strong effect of the media was tested again. Just think about the War of Words by Orson Welles, which caused people to panic. After a few weeks following the 23^rd of October, we can still feel the effects of the events and demonstrations that took place in September and October in Budapest, which we could follow through the media.

We can learn from the article that the participation of the media affected the events. Peter Gyorgy, lecturer at ELTE said that we should be more economic with participation as currently a few thousand people make use of publicity. Andras Kiraly added that the rioters asked them why the TV was not there". Kiraly thinks that participation of the media was right, otherwise the demonstrators would continue until reaching publicity. Moreover, demonstrators could have gone even further with their acts to reach publicity. To sum up, it is difficult to tell, looking at what had happened and its consequences, whether participation of the media was an advantage or a disadvantage. The members of the media agreed that the acts in the events should be shared with the public however it does not mean that media should mediate the messages as well. I would like to highlight the opinion of Adam Kiss (reporter), who thinks that it is important to be aware of what affects people's every day lives. These events did affect peoples' every day lives, which I can tell from my own experiences. I often go to the city centre and at that time in the evenings I preferred to stay away from the places, which I thought might be dangerous.

The media is said to be something that is only after the STORY, however media can get into difficult situations such as the rioting night on 23^rd October. Bence György, colleague of TV2 said that it is impossible to answer to what we should give and what we should not. It is certainly difficult to answer this because the demands and expectations of the target audience differ very much from one to another and it is very difficult to set the boundaries between what we can do and what we cannot.

Finally, the article touches upon a topic, which caused agreement between the journalists and members of the media: methods of objectivity and information buying and why they did not interview the demonstrators live. According to Miklos Borsa (Duna TV) the declarations and pronouncements of the demonstrators should be first selected before being published. It would be risky to interview them live as anything they say the audience would believe, because it was on the TV". Andras Kiraly from Index agrees with this in saying that most declarations of the demonstrators are not representative.

The article also mentions that the media was in a difficult situation as neither the police nor the politicians spoke about the case, moreover up to today there are still a lot of conjectures and different points of views, therefore it is difficult to insist on the facts and know what happened exactly and who was right and wrong.

The article lists very interesting arguments and thoughts about the many unanswered questions. The events since have appeared through different approaches depending on through whose eyes we look at it: parties and followers of the left side, parties and followers of the right side, police, demonstrators, people wanting to live in peace, etc. After the events we heard about news such as encroachment of the police, audio talks as evidences, resignation of Gergényi, A doctor did not want to cure the injured policeman.

The atmosphere is characterized by oppositions, blaming the other, fighting for truth. Nobody knows at this stage whether there will be an end to the arguments and how it will all end, or will there be a compromise that is suitable for all?

According to the article we understand that mediums do get into difficult situations. The readers and the audience want to see the events, know, see and read about facts and sometimes it is not easy to be sufficient for all requirements and demands.

It is truly a question whether what we see live and the pictures of the demonstrations are equal with the reality and equal with the facts. We see so many types of pictures, there are so many opinions and statements we read and hear, nobody knows where the real truth is. In the overflowing of continuous information people cannot always handle the amount of news and information.

In the three internet newspapers, we can find similarities and differences at the same time between the pictures that appeared on the websites.

As mentioned before, all three picture galleries show the events as they appeared. It is also similar in the use of pictures that we can find bloody pictures in all the three galleries. These pictures have a very strong effect.

First of all, we should take a look at the pictures of the demonstrators.

We can see pictures where rubber bullets caused injury and there are some others where demonstrators have bleeding faces. We can recognise the same person in all the three photo galleries however the galleries show other injured people as well. Index took a photo of an injured person in the hospital, as well.

Looking at all the pictures we can draw the conclusion that there were different types of demonstrators: from peaceful demonstrators to rioters the police stopped or had to stop all demonstrators not paying attention to whether they were peaceful or rioting. It is easy to recognise from the pictures which demonstrator belongs to which group. The gestures, mimics and movements tell everything. The peaceful demonstrators are usually holding flags, they look like they are willing to change the world, insisting on their goals. In the pictures taken of the rioters we can see signs of aggressive behaviour such as shouting, angry eyes and desperate faces, holding guns (metal sticks and Molotov cocktail). In some cases we can make the conclusion by looking at the appearance that the person belongs to the rioters group. In some pictures we can see them wearing masks not knowing whether its purpose was to hide themselves from publicity or to protect themselves from tear gas. Some pictures are shocking because we can see injured people on them, while others because of the brutal acts we can see. Pictures where demonstrators are standing on their knees, ready to sacrifice themselves have a very strong effect. These demonstrators must be somewhere between the rioters and the peaceful demonstrators - they do not have guns only flags and toughness and insistence. At the same time many of these demonstrators were considered to be rioters as well because the police wanted to dissipate the crowd and if someone did not move away it drew consequences: they either turned against the police and attacked, or ran away and while running away they may have been injured or could escape safely. There were many different types of people according to the pictures from old to young, from every day people (intellectuals as well) to rioters, from rabbles to people enduring to the end. Finally, all of the three picture galleries show pictures of some rioters who stole a tank. These pictures are also very powerful.

From all of the pictures perhaps the most effective one is from Index, where an old lady stranding alone turns against a crowd of fully armed policemen. (picture)

Another interesting photo from Index was taken of the back of a young demonstrator wearing a jacket with "rabble" written on his back. (picture)

From NOL's pictures I would highlight the one, which the photographer took of the crowd. We can imagine that the photographer could have been in danger but still took photos and did his job. Rioters and demonstrators shouting and holding flags are only a few meters away from him. The faces reflect their desperate determination. (picture)

MNO has a lot of shocking pictures from the fights in the streets, however there is one picture, which tells much more: two young people, one of them holding a flag, sitting in the middle of the street, while there is the huge police force in front of them about 100 meters away. (picture)

Although finding topics was not a problem concerning the events, these pictures are the most effective and they tell us more about the situation and atmosphere than anybody can really explain since. And, it probably cannot be explained because there were so many different types of people demonstrating, who had similar purposes and goals, but acted differently to reach their goals. The above mentioned pictures tell this, they are good, because they tell us that different people with their different purposes and truths participated in the events and these people together affected the outcome of the events.

In the eyes of the police, who had an order to dissipate the crowd, all the different types of demonstrators were one big crowd: the cause of rioting. Could there be peaceful demonstrators or people insisting on their point of views and aggressive rioters an order is an order - some could give in and escape, others who stayed and insisted had to face the consequences.

The three picture galleries showed pictures of the policemen as well. In the NOL gallery we can see pictures where the policemen are standing next to a man who is lying on the street yielding himself. One of the policemen is standing right next to him, and it seems that he wants to arrest the man. We can see pictures where the police are using tear gas on the
demonstrators who stole a tank, or a picture where 4 or 5 policemen are leading away a fettered man.

The picture from NOL's selection of a policeman who is directing his gun (rubber bullet gun) toward someone also has a very powerful effect. (picture)

In MNO's photo gallery we can see policemen with injured people in the streets, and also find pictures taken of the police using water pumps.

Index's gallery shows many pictures of the police the picture with the old lady in front of the police has already been mentioned, probably has the strongest effect.

There are only a few pictures that show differences and contrasts between the use of pictures in the three internet newspapers. The commemoration at Kossuth square is only included in Index's and NOL's photo galleries. MNO's gallery shows pictures of the demonstrators with the letters "FREEDOM" in front of them there were no pictures of this in the other two newspapers. (picture)

Another difference is that MNO's photographer took a photo of a poster about the anniversary of the 1956 Revolution with somebody's comment painted on it with airbrush: Gyurcsány AVH. (AVH means State Security Police. This functioned on the basis of the Russian model between 1945 and 1957 in Hungary. It was party operated in secret and its main purposes were to pursue people against the Communist era and to protect the era and its leaders. Many members of the ÁVH participated in suppressing the Hungarian Revolution and defeated the revolutionists in 1956.

http://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81VH

By writing the name of the prime minister together with ÁVH probably refers to the relation between the prime minister and the Communist regim) (picture)

This picture could not be found in the other photo galleries.

Only Index uses written comments under the pictures, NOL only wrote down the name of the photographer and MNO did not comment the pictures at all - maybe because they do not require any comments.

Above I compared the use of the pictures of the three internet online newspapers during the events of the 23^rd October 2006. I tried to show how pictures tell everything and nothing about the events that day and the acts of the participants. Pictures show real acts, however they do not discover the truth and maybe at this stage we can feel how important the text is. Texts can supply the missing information and give clue to the secrets, reasons behind the events and answer some questions. Although the texts are written by journalists, who deliberately or unwillingly add their opinions, still even with the pictures and the texts together, we cannot be sure of what had happened. Now, we may find out what features the pictures have without knowing the events.

All three picture galleries show the symbol of flags. In some pictures the flags are in the spotlight and in others they are in the background of the picture. However in NOL's gallery one may conclude that flags do not have the same symbolic meanings as in Index's and MNO's galleries. Mainly in MNO, but also in Index, we can see that the flags play more of a central position. In NOL's selection of pictures flags seem to be only tools of the demonstrations, and the pictures do not pay more attention to them. If we have a look at the MNO's gallery we can see many photos where the flags are above the demonstrators or in the middle of the pictures, e.g. in the picture where demonstrators are holding the flag and showing it to the photographer. Moreover, it seems that the flag has blood on it, which makes this picture even more powerful and meaningful. (picture)

It is interesting to note that we cannot see pictures of demonstrators posing to the photographers in Index's and NOL's photo galleries. Index's and NOL's pictures show moments and crowds. On the contrary, MNO has two pictures where the subject of the picture is posing to the photographer or showing something to him/her - one of them we already mentioned, the other picture is taken of an injured man, who is showing the mark of the rubber bullet on his body to the photographer - for this one of his fellows is lifting up his shirt. (picture)

Was it MNO's journalist who asked the injured man to pose for a photo or the injured man and his fellow wanted publicity?

The fact that NOL and Index did not show such pictures was because the demonstrators did not talk to them or because these newspapers paid more attention to showing pictures of the moments? Or, the way the pictures were organised was due to which photographer was there at the moment of time? There are again a few unanswered questions, which the readers can decide for themselves.

Summary

In viewing the sensitivity and the consequences of the event, which are still not closed and cleared, I leave it to the readers what consequences are to be made of the pictures and texts of the three internet newspapers. One thing is sure, the events somehow affected, shocked and revolted us in different ways. Without the media this strong effect and pressure would not be put on us, however we have got used to it as the media has become a part of our lives. We all know what it is that we want to follow and pay attention to from the events of the world. Each of the events makes different effects on us and certainly it does matter a lot how the media informs and reports to us. Some even let the media influence them and they even change their principles and opinions accordingly. Should we believe fully what we see and read are true? Is there news, which only gives us pure information and facts? There does not seem to be any. We have no other choice but to believe and trust only one thing that we always have: ourselves. Finally, to find out whether objectivity is possible at all, let me quote from Fisher from Lajos Domonkos's book (Practices and theories of journalism in online and offline newspapers, Press, page 204.): "news does not reflect reality" (...), "we, journalists do not tell the news, what we tell is the news." Fisher suggests for journalists "to pay attention to the evenness, impartiality and trustiness, which are more measurable and analysable than objectivity."

Domonkos in his book proves that objectivity is not possible. "Experienced journalists know exactly that even in the driest news we can find underlying context by the use of words and language or by the choice of synonyms." (Domonkos, )

2 days to 15th March, National Holiday in Hungary: Commemoration of Revolution in 1848. Another upcoming event that may bring political consequences. Another event that makes people fear.

The relationship between the right and left side parties and followers still has not changed since the events on the 23rd October. Moreover, because of the restrictions and new reforms, it has become even worse. One result of the restrictions is simply that more and more people are loosing their trust in the government and the right side politicians make good use of it. They attack and criticise the government and their decisions when and where they can.

In the news, only a few days before 15^th March, we can hear ?Budapest will be empty?, ?country side hotels are fully booked for the long weekend?, ?demonstrations are expected in Budapest?, ?police will not use rubber bullet this time?, etc. Will there be rioting again? Will there be injured people again? What will the police do? Why all our commemorations have to be about politics nowadays?

15^th March was always about families wearing ?kokárda? (small Hungarian flag badge) pinned on their coats or shirts visiting venues of the revolution: National Museum, statues of heroes of the day, etc. Now there will be no parents that let their children go out to these venues as it might be dangerous.

We shall see if we could learn from 23^rd October events or not.

2007.03.13.

Economic Issues
(Choose A if you agree, M for Maybe, D if you disagree.)	A	M	D
End "corporate welfare." No government handouts to business
End government barriers to international free trade
Let people control their own retirement; privatize Social Security
Replace government welfare with private charity
Cut taxes and government spending by 50% or more